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Milk in context: allergies, ecology, and some myths
牛奶背景:过敏、生态学和一些迷思
by Raymond Peat
Food allergies are becoming much more common in recent decades, especially in industrialized countries. Most attention has been given to theories about changes in people, such as the reduction in infectious diseases and parasites, or vitamin D deficiency, or harmful effects from vaccinations, and little attention has been given to degradation of the food supply.
Our food cultures, like linguistic and moral cultures, give us some assumptions or theories about the way the world should be, and if these beliefs aren't questioned and tested, they can permeate the culture of science, turning the research process into a rationalization of accepted opinions.
In general, those who pay for research are those with an investment in or commitment to the preservation and expansion of the existing systems of production and distribution. Cheap mass production, durability and long shelf-life are more important than the effects of foods on health. The biggest industries are usually able to keep public attention away from the harm they do.
近几十年来，食物过敏变得越来越普遍，尤其是在工业化国家。大多数注意力都集中在关于人类变化的理论上，例如传染病和寄生虫的减少、维生素D缺乏或接种疫苗的有害影响，而很少关注食物供应的恶化。
我们的饮食文化，就像语言和道德文化一样，给了我们一些关于世界应该是什么样子的假设或理论，如果这些信念没有受到质疑和检验，它们可以渗透到科学文化中，将研究过程变成对公认观点的合理化。
一般来说，那些支付研究费用的人是那些对保存和扩大现有的生产和分销系统进行投资或承诺的人。廉价的大规模生产、耐用性和长保质期比食物对健康的影响更重要。最大的行业通常能够让公众的注意力远离他们所造成的危害。
The historical economic importance of cereals and beans is reflected in the nutritional and biochemical research literature, which has paid relatively little attention to basic questions about human adaptation to the ecosystems. From the early petrochemical “Green Revolution” to the contemporary imposition of genetically altered seeds, the accumulated economic power of the food industry has taken control of the food culture.
In evaluating each research publication relating to nutrition and health, we should ask what alternative possibilities are being neglected, for “practical” reasons, cultural preferences, and business interests.
Some people with an ecological concern have argued that grains and beans can most economically provide the proteins and calories that people need, but good nutrition involves much more than the essential nutrients.
“Efficient” industrial agriculture has been concerned with cheaply producing those important nutrients, and their critics have focussed on their use of toxic chemicals, on the social damage they produce, the degradation of the soil, the toxic effects of genetic modification, their unsustainable use of petroleum, and occasionally on the lower nutritional value of chemically stimulated crops.
谷物和豆类的历史经济重要性反映在营养和生化研究文献中，这些文献对人类适应生态系统的基本问题的关注相对较少。从早期的石油化学“绿色革命”到当代强加的转基因种子，食品工业积累的经济力量已经控制了饮食文化。
在评估每一份与营养和健康有关的研究出版物时，我们应该问，出于“实际”原因、文化偏好和商业利益，哪些其他可能性被忽略了。
一些关注生态的人认为，谷物和豆类可以最经济地提供人们需要的蛋白质和卡路里，但良好的营养包括的远远不止基本营养素。
“高效”工业化农业关注的是这些重要营养物质的廉价生产，其批评者关注的焦点是有毒化学物质的使用，它们造成的社会破坏，土壤退化，基因改造的毒性影响，不可持续的石油使用，偶尔也会对营养价值较低的化学刺激作物产生影响。
I think far too little attention is being given to the effects of abnormal and stressful growth conditions on the plants' natural defense systems. Plants normally synthesize some toxins and inhibitors of digestive enzymes to discourage attacks by bacteria, fungi, insects, and other predators. When a plant is injured or otherwise stressed, it produces more of the defensive substances, and very often they communicate their stress to other plants, and the resulting physiological changes can cause changes in seeds that affect the resistance of the progeny. (Agrawal, 2001)
One of many substances produced by plants in response to injury is chitinase, an enzyme that breaks down chitin, a polysaccharide that is a structural component of fungi and insects. Chitinase, which is produced by bacteria and humans, as well as by plants and other organisms, is involved in developmental processes as well as in the innate immune system. In plants, the enzyme is induced by ethylene and salicylate, in animals by estrogen, light damage, and infections, and can be demonstrated in polyps and cancers.
The two main classes of plant allergens are the stress-induced chitinases, and seed storage proteins, such as gluten. The chitinase allergens are responsible for reactions to latex (which is secreted by rubber trees in reaction to a wound), bananas, avocados, many other fruits and vegetables, and some types of wood and other plant materials. Intensive agricultural methods are increasing the formation of the defensive chemicals, and the industrialized crops are responsible for the great majority of the new allergies that have appeared in the last 30 years.
The presence of the chitinase family of proteins in humans was first discovered in the inflamed asthmatic lung. It was then found at high levels in the uterine endometrium at the time of implantation of the embryo (an inflammation-like situation) and in the uterus during premature labor. Since estrogen treatment is known to increase the incidence of asthma and other inflammations, the appearance of chitinase also in the uterus in estrogen dominated conditions is interesting, especially when the role of estrogen in celiac disease (in effect an allergy to gluten) is considered. Celiac disease is more prevalent among females, and it involves the immunological cross-reaction to an antigen in the estrogen-regulated transglutaminase enzyme and the gluten protein. The (calcium-regulated) transglutaminase enzyme is involved in the cross-linking of proteins in keratinized cells, in fibrotic processes in the liver, and in cancer. (People with celiac disease often suffer from osteoporosis and urinary stone deposition, showing a general problem with calcium regulation.)
我认为，对于异常和紧张的生长条件对植物自然防御系统的影响，人们给予的关注太少了。植物通常会合成一些毒素和消化酶抑制剂来阻止细菌、真菌、昆虫和其他捕食者的攻击。当植物受到伤害或其他压力时，它会产生更多的防御物质，通常它们会将自己的压力传递给其他植物，由此产生的生理变化会导致种子的变化，从而影响后代的抗性。(Agrawal, 2001)
几丁质酶是植物在受到伤害后产生的许多物质之一，它是一种分解几丁质的酶，几丁质是一种多糖，是真菌和昆虫的结构成分。几丁质酶是由细菌和人类，以及植物和其他生物产生的，它参与发育过程和先天免疫系统。在植物中，这种酶是由乙烯和水杨酸盐诱导的，在动物中则是由雌激素、光损伤和感染诱导的，在息肉和癌症中也可以证实。
植物过敏原的两大类是胁迫诱导的几丁质酶和种子贮藏蛋白，如谷蛋白。几丁质酶过敏原会对乳胶(橡胶树受伤时分泌的)、香蕉、鳄梨、许多其他水果和蔬菜，以及某些类型的木材和其他植物物质产生反应。集约化的农业方法正在增加防御性化学物质的形成，而工业化的作物是在过去30年出现的绝大多数新过敏的原因。
几丁质酶家族蛋白在人类中的存在最早是在炎症哮喘的肺中发现的。然后在胚胎着床时(类似炎症的情况)子宫内膜和早产时的子宫内发现高水平。由于雌激素治疗会增加哮喘和其他炎症的发生率，几丁质酶在雌激素主导的子宫中出现是很有趣的，特别是考虑到雌激素在乳糜泻(实际上是对麸质过敏)中的作用。乳糜泻在女性中更为普遍，它涉及到对雌激素调节的谷氨酰胺转胺酶和谷蛋白中的抗原的免疫交叉反应。(钙调节的)谷氨酰胺转移酶参与角化细胞中蛋白质的交联，在肝脏的纤维化过程中，以及在癌症中。(乳糜泻患者经常患有骨质疏松症和尿石沉积，显示出钙调节的普遍问题。)
This means that estrogen and stress cause the appearance of antigens in the human or animal tissues that are essentially the same as the stress-induced and defensive proteins in plant tissues. A crocodile might experience the same sort of allergic reaction when eating estrogen-treated women and when eating commercial bananas.
The various states of the innate immune system have been neglected by immunologists, for example in relation to organ transplantation. The “major histocompatibility” antigens are matched, but organ transplants still sometimes fail. A study found that the livers from young men had a high survival rate when transplanted into either men or women, but the livers of older women donors were rejected at a high rate when transplanted into either men or women. Exposure to estrogen increases intracellular calcium and the unsaturation of fatty acids in tissue lipids, and the expression of enzymes such as chitinase and transglutaminase, and the various enzymes in the structure-sensitive estrogen-controlled metabolic pathways.
Estrogen's actions are closely and pervasively involved with the regulation of calcium, and these changes affect the basic tissue structures and processes that constitute the innate immune system. Estrogen's effect in increasing susceptibility to “autoimmune” diseases hasn't yet been recognized by mainstream medicine.
The chemist Norman Pirie argued convincingly that leaf protein had much higher nutritional value than grain and bean proteins, and that it had the potential to be much more efficient economically, if it could be separated from the less desirable components of leaves.
这意味着雌激素和应激导致抗原在人类或动物组织中出现，这些抗原本质上与植物组织中应激诱导和防御蛋白相同。当鳄鱼吃了经过雌激素治疗的女性或吃了商品香蕉时，可能也会有同样的过敏反应。
先天免疫系统的各种状态一直被免疫学家忽视，例如在器官移植方面。“主要组织相容性”抗原是匹配的，但器官移植有时还是会失败。一项研究发现，年轻男性的肝脏被移植到男性或女性体内时，存活率很高，但老年女性的肝脏被移植到男性或女性体内时，排异率很高。暴露于雌激素会增加细胞内钙和组织脂中脂肪酸的不饱和，以及几丁质酶和谷氨酰胺转移酶等酶的表达，以及结构敏感的雌激素控制代谢途径中的各种酶的表达。
雌激素的作用与钙的调节密切而广泛地相关，这些变化影响构成先天免疫系统的基本组织结构和过程。雌激素在增加“自身免疫性”疾病易感性方面的作用尚未被主流医学所承认。
化学家诺曼·皮里(Norman Pirie)令人信服地提出，叶蛋白的营养价值远远高于谷物和豆类蛋白，如果能从叶中不那么理想的成分中分离出来，叶蛋白的经济效益可能会高得多。
The amino acid composition and nutritional value of leaf protein is similar to milk protein, which is understandable since cows produce milk from the amino acids produced in their rumens by bacteria digesting the leaves the cows have eaten. The bacteria perform the refining processes that Pirie believed could be done technologically, and they also degrade or detoxify the major toxins and allergens.
The nutrients produced in the cow's rumen are selectively absorbed into the cow's bloodstream, where the liver can further filter out any toxins before the amino acids and other nutrients are absorbed by the udder to be synthesized into milk. If cows are fed extremely bad diets, for example with a very large amount of grain, the filtering process is less perfect, and some allergens can reach the milk, but since sick cows are less profitable than healthy cows, dairies usually feed their cows fairly well.
In a recent study of 69,796 hospitalized newborns, a diagnosis of cow's milk allergy was made in 0.21% of them. Among those whose birthweight had been less than a kilogram, 0.35% of them were diagnosed with the milk allergy. Gastrointestinal symptoms were the main reason for the diagnosis, but a challenge test to confirm the diagnosis was used in only 15% of the participating hospitals, and a lymphocyte stimulation test was used in only 5.5% of them (Miyazawa, et al., 2009). There are many publications about milk allergies, but they generally involve a small group of patients, and the tests they use are rarely evaluated on healthy control subjects.
叶蛋白的氨基酸组成和营养价值与牛奶蛋白相似，这是可以理解的，因为奶牛的牛奶是由消化牛吃过的叶的细菌在瘤胃中产生的氨基酸产生的。这些细菌进行着Pirie认为技术上可以完成的提炼过程，它们也降解或解毒主要毒素和过敏原。
奶牛瘤胃产生的营养物质被选择性地吸收到奶牛的血液中，在氨基酸和其他营养物质被乳房吸收合成牛奶之前，肝脏可以进一步过滤掉任何毒素。如果奶牛被喂食非常糟糕的饮食，例如大量的谷物，过滤过程就不那么完美，一些过敏原可以到达牛奶，但由于生病的奶牛比健康的奶牛利润更低，奶牛场通常喂养它们的奶牛相当好。
在最近一项针对69,796名住院新生儿的研究中，0.21%的新生儿被诊断为牛奶过敏。在出生体重不足1公斤的人群中，0.35%的人被诊断出牛奶过敏。胃肠道症状是诊断的主要原因，但只有15%的参与医院使用了挑战试验来确诊，只有5.5%的参与医院使用了淋巴细胞刺激试验(Miyazawa, et al.， 2009)。有很多关于牛奶过敏的出版物，但它们通常只涉及一小群患者，而且它们使用的测试很少在健康对照对象中进行评估。
Several surveys have found that of children who have a diagnosed milk allergy, about 2/3 of them grow out of the allergy.
People who have told me that they have had digestive problems with milk have sometimes found that a different brand of milk doesn't cause any problem.
Milk with reduced fat content is required by US law to have vitamins D and A added. The vehicle used in the vitamin preparation, and the industrial contaminants in the “pure” vitamins themselves, are possible sources of allergens in commercial milk, so whole milk is the most likely to be free of allergens.
A thickening agent commonly used in milk products, carrageenan, is a powerful allergen that can cause a “pseudo-latex allergy” (Tarlo, et al., 1995). It is a sulfated polysaccharide, structurally similar to heparin. There are good reasons to think that its toxic effects are the result of disturbance of calcium metabolism (see for example Abdullahi, et al., 1975; Halici, et al., 2008; Janaswamy and Chandrasekaran, 2008).
Besides the idea of milk allergy, the most common reason for avoiding milk is the belief that the genes of some ethnic groups cause them to lack the enzyme, lactase, needed to digest milk sugar, lactose, and that this causes lactose intolerance, resulting in gas or diarrhea when milk is consumed. Tests have been reported in which a glass of milk will cause the lactase deficient people to have abdominal pain. However, when intolerant people have been tested, using milk without lactose for comparison, there were no differences between those receiving milk with lactose or without it. The “intolerant” people consistently tolerate having a glass with each meal.
几项调查发现，在被诊断为牛奶过敏的儿童中，约有2/3的人长大后不再过敏。
有些人告诉我，他们喝了牛奶后出现了消化问题，但有时他们会发现，不同牌子的牛奶不会造成任何问题。
美国法律规定，低脂牛奶必须添加维生素D和A。维生素制剂中使用的载体，以及“纯”维生素本身的工业污染物，都可能是商业牛奶中过敏原的来源，所以全脂牛奶最有可能不含过敏原。
卡拉胶是乳制品中常用的一种增稠剂，它是一种强效过敏原，可导致“伪乳胶过敏”(Tarlo等，1995)。它是一种硫酸多糖，结构类似于肝素。有充分的理由认为它的毒性作用是钙代谢紊乱的结果(见例如Abdullahi等人，1975;Halici等，2008;Janaswamy和Chandrasekaran, 2008)。
除了牛奶过敏的想法,避免牛奶最常见的原因是相信一些民族的基因使他们缺乏这种酶,乳糖酶,需要消化牛奶糖,乳糖,乳糖不耐受,这原因,导致气体或腹泻时牛奶消费。有试验报告称，一杯牛奶会导致乳糖酶缺乏的人有腹痛。然而，当对不耐乳糖的人进行测试时，使用不含乳糖的牛奶进行比较时，那些接受含乳糖牛奶和不含乳糖牛奶的人之间没有差异。“不耐受”的人总是能忍受每顿饭都喝一杯。
When a group of lactase deficient people have been given some milk every day for a few weeks, they have adapted, for example with tests showing that much less hydrogen gas was produced from lactose by intestinal bacteria after they had adapted (Pribila, et al., 2000).
Bacterial overgrowth in the small intestine can be caused by hypothyroidism (Lauritano, et al., 2007), and the substances produced by these bacteria can damage the lining of the small intestine, causing the loss of lactase enzymes (Walshe, et al., 1990).
Another hormonal condition that probably contributes to lactase deficiency is progesterone deficiency, since a synthetic progestin has been found to increase the enzyme (Nagpaul, et al., 1990). The particular progestin they used lacks many of progesterone's effects, but it does protect against some kinds of stress, including high estrogen and cortisol. This suggests that stress, with its increased ratio of estrogen and cortisol to progesterone, might commonly cause the enzyme to decrease.
Two other ideas that sometimes cause people to avoid drinking milk and eating cheese are that they are “fattening foods,” and that the high calcium content could contribute to hardening of the arteries.
当一组乳糖酶缺乏的人连续几周每天喝一些牛奶时，他们已经适应了，例如，测试表明，在他们适应后，肠道细菌从乳糖中产生的氢气要少得多(Pribila, et al.， 2000)。
小肠内的细菌过度生长可由甲状腺功能减退引起(Lauritano, et al.， 2007)，这些细菌产生的物质会破坏小肠内壁，导致乳糖酶的丧失(Walshe, et al.， 1990)。
另一种可能导致乳糖酶缺乏的激素状况是黄体酮缺乏，因为已经发现合成黄体酮会增加乳糖酶(Nagpaul等，1990)。他们使用的黄体酮缺乏黄体酮的许多作用，但它确实能抵抗某些压力，包括高雌激素和皮质醇。这表明，随着雌激素和皮质醇与孕酮比例的增加，压力通常会导致酶的下降。
另外两个有时会导致人们避免喝牛奶和吃奶酪的观点是，它们是“使人发胖的食物”，高钙含量会导致动脉硬化。
When I traveled around Europe in 1968, I noticed that milk and cheese were hard to find in the Slavic countries, and that many people were fat. When I crossed from Russia into Finland, I noticed there were many stores selling a variety of cheeses, and the people were generally slender. When I lived in Mexico in the 1960s, good milk was hard to find in the cities and towns, and most women had fat hips and short legs. Twenty years later, when good milk was available in all the cites, there were many more slender women, and the young people on average had much longer legs. The changes I noticed there reminded me of the differences I had seen between Moscow and Helsinki, and I suspect that the differences in calcium intake were partly responsible for the changes of physique.
In recent years there have been studies showing that regular milk drinkers are less fat than people who don't drink it. Although the high quality protein and saturated fat undoubtedly contribute to milk's anti-obesity effect, the high calcium content is probably the main factor.
The parathyroid hormone (PTH) is an important regulator of calcium metabolism. If dietary calcium isn't sufficient, causing blood calcium to decrease, the PTH increases, and removes calcium from bones to maintain a normal amount in the blood. PTH has many other effects, contributing to inflammation, calcification of soft tissues, and decreased respiratory energy production.
当我在1968年周游欧洲时，我注意到在斯拉夫国家很难找到牛奶和奶酪，而且很多人都很胖。当我从俄罗斯进入芬兰时，我注意到那里有许多商店出售各种各样的奶酪，人们一般都很苗条。20世纪60年代我住在墨西哥时，在城市和城镇很难找到好的牛奶，大多数妇女都有肥臀和短腿。20年后，当好牛奶在所有城市都能买到的时候，苗条的女性更多了，年轻人的平均腿也更长了。我在那里注意到的变化让我想起了我在莫斯科和赫尔辛基看到的差异，我怀疑钙摄入量的差异在一定程度上导致了体质的变化。
近年来，有研究表明，经常喝牛奶的人比不喝牛奶的人脂肪要少。虽然优质的蛋白质和饱和脂肪无疑有助于牛奶的抗肥胖效果，但高钙含量可能是主要因素。
甲状旁腺激素(PTH)是钙代谢的重要调节因子。如果饮食中的钙不足，导致血液中的钙减少，甲状旁腺激素就会增加，并从骨骼中去除钙以维持血液中的正常含量。甲状旁腺激素还有许多其他作用，可导致炎症、软组织钙化和呼吸能量减少。
When there is adequate calcium, vitamin D, and magnesium in the diet, PTH is kept to a minimum. When PTH is kept low, cells increase their formation of the uncoupling proteins, that cause mitochondria to use energy at a higher rate, and this is associated with decreased activity of the fatty acid synthase enzymes.
These changes are clearly related to the anti-obesity effect of calcium, but those enzymes are important for many other problems.
The “metabolic syndrome,” that involves diabetes, hypertension, and obesity, is associated with high PTH (Ahlström, et al., 2009; Hjelmesaeth, et al., 2009).
Alzheimer's disease involves decreased mitochondrial activity and low levels of the uncoupling proteins. There is evidence that milk drinkers are protected against dementia (Yamada, et al., 2003). Cancer involves increased activity of the fatty acid synthase enzymes. Increased calcium consumption beneficially affects both sets of enzymes, uncoupling proteins and fatty acid synthase.
Multiple sclerosis relapses consistently occur at times of high PTH, and remissions consistently occur at times of low PTH (Soilu-Hänninen, et al., 3008). PTH increases the activity of nitric oxide synthase, and nitric oxide is a factor in the vascular leakiness that is so important in MS.
当饮食中有足够的钙、维生素D和镁时，甲状旁腺激素被保持在最低水平。当甲状旁腺激素保持在较低水平时，细胞会增加解偶联蛋白的形成，从而导致线粒体以较高的速度消耗能量，这与脂肪酸合酶活性的降低有关。
这些变化显然与钙的抗肥胖作用有关，但这些酶对许多其他问题也很重要。
“代谢综合征”涉及糖尿病、高血压和肥胖，与甲状旁腺激素水平高有关(Ahlström，等，2009;Hjelmesaeth等，2009)。
阿尔茨海默病涉及线粒体活动减少和解偶联蛋白水平低。有证据表明，喝牛奶的人可以预防痴呆(Yamada等，2003)。癌症涉及到脂肪酸合酶活性的增加。增加钙的消耗有利于两组酶，解偶联蛋白和脂肪酸合酶。
多发性硬化症复发持续发生在甲状旁腺激素水平高时，缓解持续发生在甲状旁腺激素水平低时(Soilu-Hänninen，等，3008)。甲状旁腺激素增加一氧化氮合酶的活性，一氧化氮是血管渗漏的一个因素，这在多发性硬化症中非常重要。
There are components of milk that might protect against tooth decay by inhibiting the binding of bacteria to teeth (Danielsson, et al., 2009).
David McCarron has published a large amount of evidence showing how calcium deficiency contributes to high blood pressure. The chronic elevation of PTH caused by calcium deficiency causes the heart and blood vessels to retain calcium, making them unable to relax fully.
Intravenous infusion of calcium can relax blood vessels and improve heart function. The suppression of PTH is probably the main mechanism.
PTH (like estrogen) causes mast cells to release promoters of inflammation, including histamine and serotonin. Serotonin and nitric oxide contribute to increasing PTH secretion.
Removal of the parathyroid gland has reduced heart problems and mortality (Costa-Hong, et al., 2007) and insomnia (Esposito, et al., 2008; Sabbatini, et al., 2002) in people with kidney disease and excess PTH.
Increased carbon dioxide, for example when adapted to high altitude, can greatly decrease PTH. Frequent, but smaller, meals can reduce PTH.
牛奶中的某些成分可能通过抑制细菌与牙齿的结合来防止蛀牙(Danielsson等人，2009)。
David McCarron发表了大量的证据来说明钙缺乏是如何导致高血压的。钙缺乏引起的甲状甲状腺素慢性升高，使心脏和血管保留钙，使其不能充分放松。
静脉输注钙可以舒张血管，改善心脏功能。抑制甲状旁腺激素可能是其主要机制。
甲状旁腺激素(如雌激素)导致肥大细胞释放促炎因子，包括组胺和血清素。血清素和一氧化氮有助于增加甲状旁腺激素的分泌。
切除甲状旁腺可以减少心脏问题和死亡率(Costa-Hong, et al.， 2007)和失眠(Esposito, et al.， 2008;Sabbatini等人，2002)在肾脏疾病和甲状旁腺激素过剩的人群中。
例如，当适应高海拔环境时，二氧化碳的增加会大大降低甲状旁腺激素的含量。多餐少餐可以减少甲状旁腺激素。
Cancer cells often secrete PTH and related proteins with similar effects on calcium, and the PTH stimulates the growth and invasiveness of prostate cancer (DaSilva, et al., 2009) cells, and seems to be as closely involved with breast cancer. The PTH-related protein is associated with calcification in breast cancer (Kanbara, et al., 1994). Microscopic calcium crystals themselve produce inflammation (Denko and Whitehouse, 1976).
Besides being an ecologically favorable source of calcium, protein, sugar, and fat, the composition of milk causes it to be digested efficiently, supporting the growth of bacteria that are relatively safe for the intestine and liver, and reducing the absorption of endotoxin.
Dividing any food into smaller meals can lower the PTH, and milk is a convenient food to use in small amounts and frequently.
Some amino acids directly stimulate insulin secretion, decreasing blood sugar and leading to the secretion of cortisol in reaction to the depression of blood glucose. The presence of lactose in milk, and of fat, to slow absorption of the amino acids, helps to minimize the secretion of cortisol. The main protein of milk, casein, seems to have some direct antistress effects (Biswas, et al., 2003).
癌细胞通常分泌甲状旁腺激素(PTH)和对钙具有类似作用的相关蛋白，而甲状旁腺激素刺激前列腺癌(DaSilva等，2009)细胞的生长和侵袭，似乎与乳腺癌密切相关。甲状旁腺激素相关蛋白与乳腺癌的钙化有关(Kanbara等，1994)。显微镜下的钙晶体本身会产生炎症(Denko和Whitehouse, 1976)。
除了在生态上是钙、蛋白质、糖和脂肪的良好来源外，牛奶的成分使它能被有效地消化，支持对肠道和肝脏相对安全的细菌的生长，并减少内毒素的吸收。
把任何食物分成小餐都可以降低甲状旁腺激素，而牛奶是一种方便的食物，可以经常少量食用。
有些氨基酸直接刺激胰岛素分泌，降低血糖，导致皮质醇分泌，对血糖下降作出反应。牛奶中乳糖和脂肪的存在减缓了氨基酸的吸收，有助于减少皮质醇的分泌。牛奶的主要蛋白质，酪蛋白，似乎有一些直接的抗应激作用(Biswas等，2003)。
Since milk's primary biological function is to support the growth of a young animal, some of its features make it inappropriate as a sole food for an adult. To support cell division and growth, the methionine and tryptophan content of milk is higher than would be optimal for an adult animal, and the phosphate might be slightly more than needed, in relation to the calcium. Since the fetus stores a large amount of iron during gestation, the iron content of milk is low, and when a young animal has used the stored iron, its continuing growth requires more iron than milk provides. However, for an adult, the low iron content of milk and cheese makes these foods useful for preventing the iron overload that often contributes to the degenerative diseases.
Combining milk and cheese with fruits adds to the antistress effect. The additional sugar and potassium and other minerals allow the milk protein to be used more efficiently, by moderating the secretion of cortisol, and helping to inhibit the secretion of PTH.
Substances such as PTH, nitric oxide, serotonin, cortisol, aldosterone, estrogen, thyroid stimulating hormone, and prolactin have regulatory and adaptive functions that are essential, but that ideally should act only intermittently, producing changes that are needed momentarily. When the environment is too stressful, or when nutrition isn't adequate, the organism may be unable to mobilize the opposing and complementary substances to stop their actions. In those situations, it can be therapeutic to use some of the nutrients as supplements. Calcium carbonate (eggshell or oyster shell, for example) and vitamins D and K, can sometimes produce quick antistress effects, alleviating insomnia, hypertension, edema, inflammations and allergies, etc., but the regular use of milk and cheese can prevent many chronic stress-related diseases.
由于牛奶的主要生物学功能是支持幼小动物的生长，它的一些特征使它不适合作为成年动物的唯一食物。为了支持细胞分裂和生长，牛奶中蛋氨酸和色氨酸的含量高于成年动物的最佳水平，相对于钙，磷酸盐可能略高于所需。由于胎儿在妊娠期间储存了大量的铁，所以牛奶中的铁含量很低，当幼小的动物使用了储存的铁，它的持续生长需要比牛奶更多的铁。然而，对于成年人来说，牛奶和奶酪中的低铁含量使这些食物有助于防止铁超载，而铁超载往往会导致退行性疾病。
把牛奶、奶酪和水果混合在一起可以增加抗压力的效果。额外的糖、钾和其他矿物质通过调节皮质醇的分泌，帮助抑制甲状旁腺激素的分泌，使牛奶蛋白得到更有效的利用。
甲状上皮激素、一氧化氮、血清素、皮质醇、醛固酮、雌激素、促甲状腺激素和催乳素等物质具有重要的调节和适应功能，但理想情况下它们只能间歇性地发挥作用，产生暂时需要的变化。当环境压力过大，或营养不足时，机体可能无法调动对立和互补物质来停止它们的活动。在这种情况下，使用一些营养物质作为补充剂是有治疗效果的。碳酸钙(例如蛋壳或牡蛎壳)和维生素D、K，有时可以产生快速的抗压力作用，缓解失眠、高血压、水肿、炎症和过敏等，但经常使用牛奶和奶酪可以预防许多与压力有关的慢性疾病。
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近几十年来，食物过敏变得越来越普遍，尤其是在工业化国家。大多数注意力都集中在关于人类变化的理论上，例如传染病和寄生虫的减少、维生素D缺乏或疫苗的影响，而很少关注食物供应的恶化。
我们的饮食文化，就像语言和道德文化一样，给了我们一些关于世界应该是什么样子的假设或理论，如果这些信念没有受到质疑和检验，可以渗透到科学文化中，将研究过程变成对公认观点的合理化。
一般来说，支付研究费用的人是对保存和扩大现有的生产和分销系统进行投资或承诺的人。廉价的大规模生产、耐用性和长保质期比食物对健康的影响更重要。最大的行业通常能够让公众不注意其所造成的危害。
谷物和豆类的历史经济重要性反映在营养和生化研究文献中，这些文献对人类适应生态系统的基本问题的关注相对较少。从早期的石油化学“绿色革命”到当代强加的转基因种子，食品工业积累的经济力量已经控制了饮食文化。
在评估每一份与营养和健康有关的研究出版物时，我们应该问，出于“实际”原因、文化偏好和商业利益，哪些其他可能性被忽略了。
一些关注生态的人认为，谷物和豆类可以最经济地提供人们需要的蛋白质和热量，但良好的营养包括的远远不止基本营养素。
“高效”工业化农业关注的是这些重要营养物质的廉价生产，其批评者关注的焦点是有毒化学物质的使用，其所造成的社会破坏、土壤退化、基因改造的毒性影响、不可持续的石油使用，偶尔也涉及化工刺激作物的更低营养价值。
我认为，太少关注对于异常和应激生长条件对植物自然防御系统的影响。植物通常会合成一些毒素和消化酶抑制剂来阻止细菌、真菌、昆虫和其他捕食者的攻击。当植物受到伤害或其他压力时，会产生更多的防御物质，通常会将自己的压力传递给其他植物，由此产生的生理变化会导致种子的变化，从而影响后代的抗性。(Agrawal, 2001)
几丁质酶是植物在受到伤害后产生的许多物质之一，是一种分解几丁质的酶，几丁质是一种多糖，是真菌和昆虫的结构成分。几丁质酶是由细菌和人类，以及植物和其他生物产生的，参与发育过程和先天免疫系统。几丁质酶在植物中是由乙烯和水杨酸盐诱导的，在动物中则是由雌激素、光损伤和感染诱导的，在息肉和癌症中也可以证实。
植物过敏原的两大类是应激诱导的几丁质酶和种子存储蛋白，如谷蛋白。几丁质酶过敏原会对乳胶(橡胶树受伤时分泌的)、香蕉、鳄梨、许多其他水果和蔬菜，以及某些类型的木材和其他植物物质产生反应。集约化的农业方法正在增加防御性化学物质的形成，而工业化的作物是在过去30年出现的绝大多数新过敏的原因。
几丁质酶家族蛋白在人类中出现，最早是在炎症哮喘的肺中发现的。然后在胚胎着床时(类似炎症的情况)子宫内膜和早产时的子宫内发现高水平。由于雌激素治疗会增加哮喘和其他炎症的发生率，几丁质酶在雌激素主导的子宫中出现是很有趣的，特别是考虑到雌激素在乳糜泻(实际上是对麸质过敏)中的作用。乳糜泻在女性中更为普遍，涉及到对雌激素调节的谷氨酰胺转胺酶和谷蛋白中的抗原的免疫交叉反应。(钙调节的)谷氨酰胺转移酶参与角化细胞中蛋白质的交联，在肝纤维化过程中，以及在癌症中。(乳糜泻患者经常患有骨质疏松症和尿石沉积，显示出钙调节的普遍问题。)
这意味着雌激素和应激导致抗原在人类或动物组织中出现，这些抗原本质上与植物组织中应激诱导和防御蛋白相同。当鳄鱼在吃掉雌激素治疗过的女性和吃商业化香蕉一样，可能也会有同样的过敏反应。
先天免疫系统的各种状态一直被免疫学家忽视，例如在器官移植方面。“主要组织相容性”抗原是匹配的，但器官移植有时还是会失败。一项研究发现，年轻男性的肝脏被移植到男性或女性体内时，存活率很高，但老年女性的肝脏被移植到男性或女性体内时，排异率很高。暴露于雌激素会增加细胞内钙和组织脂肪酸的不饱和，以及几丁质酶和谷氨酰胺转移酶等酶的表达，以及结构敏感的雌激素控制代谢途径中的各种酶的表达。
雌激素的作用与钙的调节密切而广泛地相关，这些变化影响构成先天免疫系统的基本组织结构和过程。雌激素在增加“自身免疫性”疾病易感性方面的作用尚未被主流医学所承认。
化学家诺曼·皮里(Norman Pirie)令人信服地提出，叶蛋白的营养价值远远高于谷物和豆类蛋白，如果能从叶中不那么理想的成分中分离出来，叶蛋白潜在的效益可能会高得多。
叶蛋白的氨基酸组成和营养价值与牛奶蛋白相似，这是可以理解的，因为奶牛的牛奶是由消化牛吃叶子的细菌在瘤胃中产生的氨基酸产生的。这些细菌进行Pirie认为技术上可以完成的提炼过程，也降解或解毒主要毒素和过敏原。
奶牛瘤胃产生的营养物质被选择性地吸收到奶牛的血液中，在氨基酸和其他营养物质被乳房吸收合成牛奶之前，肝脏可以进一步过滤掉任何毒素。如果奶牛被喂食非常糟糕的饮食，例如大量的谷物，过滤过程就不那么完美，一些过敏原可以进入牛奶，但由于生病的奶牛比健康的奶牛利润更低，奶牛场通常喂养的奶牛相当好。
在最近一项针对69,796名住院新生儿的研究中，0.21%的新生儿被诊断为牛奶过敏。在出生体重不足1公斤的分组中，0.35%的人被诊断出牛奶过敏。胃肠道症状是诊断的主要原因，但只有15%参与医院使用了挑战试验来确诊，只有5.5%参与医院使用了淋巴细胞刺激试验(Miyazawa, et al.， 2009)。有很多关于牛奶过敏的出版物，通常只涉及一小群患者，而且使用的检测很少在健康对照对象中进行评估。
几项调查发现，在诊断为牛奶过敏的儿童中，约有2/3长大后不再过敏。
有些人告诉我，喝了牛奶后出现了消化问题，但有时会发现，另外不同牌子的牛奶不会造成任何问题。
美国法律规定，低脂牛奶必须添加维生素D和A。维生素制剂中使用的载体，以及“纯”维生素本身的工业污染物，都可能是商业牛奶中过敏原的来源，所以全脂牛奶最有可能不含过敏原。
卡拉胶是乳制品中常用的一种增稠剂，是一种强效过敏原，可导致“伪乳胶过敏”(Tarlo等，1995)，是一种硫酸多糖，结构类似于肝素。有充分的理由认为其毒性作用是钙代谢紊乱的结果(案例见Abdullahi等人，1975;Halici等，2008;Janaswamy和Chandrasekaran, 2008)。
除了牛奶过敏的想法,避免牛奶最常见的原因是相信一些民族基因缺乏乳糖酶（消化乳糖的酶）,导致乳糖不耐受,结果是胀气或腹泻。有试验报告称，一杯牛奶会导致乳糖酶缺乏的人有腹痛。然而，当对乳糖不耐的人进行测试时，使用不含乳糖的牛奶进行比较时，那些接受含乳糖牛奶和不含乳糖牛奶的人之间没有差异。“不耐受”的人总是能忍受每餐喝一杯。
当一组乳糖酶缺乏的人连续几周每天喝一些牛奶，就已经可以适应，例如测试表明，在适应后，肠道细菌从乳糖中产生的氢气要少得多(Pribila, et al.， 2000)。
小肠内的细菌过度生长可由甲减引起(Lauritano, et al.， 2007)，这些细菌产生的物质会破坏小肠内壁，导致乳糖酶丧失(Walshe, et al.， 1990)。
另一种可能导致乳糖酶缺乏的激素状况是黄体酮缺乏，因为已经发现合成黄体酮会增加乳糖酶(Nagpaul等，1990)。他们特别使用的黄体酮缺乏黄体酮的许多作用，但确实能抵抗某些压力，包括高雌激素和皮质醇。这表明，随着雌激素和皮质醇与黄体酮比例的增加，压力通常会导致乳糖酶的下降。
另外两个有时会导致人们避免喝牛奶和吃奶酪的观点是，一是因为是“增肥食物”，二是高钙含量会导致动脉硬化。
1968年当我周游欧洲时，我注意到在斯拉夫国家很难找到牛奶和奶酪，很多人都很胖。当我从俄罗斯进入芬兰时，我注意到那里有许多商店出售各种各样的奶酪，人们一般都很苗条。20世纪60年代我住在墨西哥时，在城市和城镇很难找到好的牛奶，大多数妇女都有肥臀和短腿。20年后，当在所有城市都能买到好牛奶的时候，苗条的女性更多了，年轻人的平均腿也更长了。在那里注意到的变化让我想起了在莫斯科和赫尔辛基看到的差异，我怀疑钙摄入量的差异在一定程度上导致了体质的变化。
近年来，有研究表明，经常喝牛奶的人比不喝牛奶的人脂肪要少。虽然优质的蛋白质和饱和脂肪无疑有助于牛奶的抗肥胖效果，但高钙含量可能是主要因素。
甲状旁腺激素(PTH)是钙代谢的重要调节因子。如果饮食中的钙不足，导致血钙减少，甲状旁腺激素就会增加，从骨骼中去除钙以维持血液中的正常含量。甲状旁腺激素还有许多其他作用，可导致炎症、软组织钙化和呼吸能量减少。
当饮食中有足够的钙、维生素D和镁时，甲状旁腺激素被保持在最低水平。当甲状旁腺激素保持在较低水平时，细胞会增加解偶联蛋白的形成，从而导致线粒体以较高的速度使用能量，这与降低脂肪酸合成酶活性有关。
这些变化显然与钙的抗肥胖作用有关，但这些酶对许多其他问题也很重要。
“代谢综合征”涉及糖尿病、高血压和肥胖，与甲状旁腺激素水平高有关(Ahlström，等，2009;Hjelmesaeth等，2009)。
阿尔茨海默病涉及线粒体活动减少和解偶联蛋白水平低。有证据表明，喝牛奶的人可以预防失智症(Yamada等，2003)。癌症涉及到脂肪酸合酶活性的增加。增加钙的消耗有利于两组酶，解偶联蛋白和脂肪酸合酶。
多发性硬化症复发持续发生在甲状旁腺激素水平高时，缓解持续发生在甲状旁腺激素水平低时(Soilu-Hänninen，等，3008)。甲状旁腺激素增加一氧化氮合酶的活性，一氧化氮是血管渗漏的一个因素，这在多发性硬化症中非常重要。
牛奶中的某些成分可能通过抑制细菌与牙齿的结合来防止蛀牙(Danielsson等人，2009)。
David McCarron发表了大量的证据来说明缺钙是如何导致高血压的。缺钙引起的甲状旁腺激素慢性升高，使心脏和血管保留钙，使其不能充分放松。
静脉输注钙可以舒张血管，改善心脏功能。抑制甲状旁腺激素可能是其主要机制。
甲状旁腺激素(类似雌激素)导致肥大细胞释放促炎因子，包括组胺和血清素。血清素和一氧化氮有助于增加甲状旁腺激素的分泌。
切除甲状旁腺可以减少在肾脏疾病和甲状旁腺激素过剩的人群中的心脏问题和死亡率(Costa-Hong, et al.， 2007)和失眠(Esposito, et al.， 2008;Sabbatini等人，2002)。
增加二氧化碳，例如在适应高海拔环境时，会大大降低甲状旁腺激素的含量。少食多餐可以减少甲状旁腺激素。
癌细胞通常分泌甲状旁腺激素和对钙具有类似作用的相关蛋白，甲状旁腺激素刺激前列腺癌(DaSilva等，2009)细胞的生长和转移，似乎与乳腺癌密切相关。甲状旁腺激素相关蛋白与乳腺癌的钙化有关(Kanbara等，1994)。显微镜下的钙晶体本身会产生炎症(Denko和Whitehouse, 1976)。
除了在生态上是钙、蛋白质、糖和脂肪的良好来源外，牛奶的成分使其能被有效地消化，支持对肠道和肝脏相对安全的细菌的生长，减少内毒素的吸收。
把任何食物分成小餐都可以降低甲状旁腺激素，牛奶则是可以少食多餐的一种方便食物。
有些氨基酸直接刺激胰岛素分泌，降低血糖，导致分泌皮质醇对降血糖作出反应。牛奶中乳糖和脂肪的存在减缓了氨基酸的吸收，有助于减少皮质醇的分泌。牛奶的主要蛋白质，酪蛋白，似乎有一些直接的抗应激作用(Biswas等，2003)。
由于奶的主要生物学功能是支持幼年动物的生长，一些特征导致不适合作为成年动物的唯一食物。为了支持细胞分裂和生长，奶中蛋氨酸和色氨酸的含量高于成年动物的最佳水平，相对于钙，磷酸盐可能略高于所需。由于胎儿在妊娠期间储存了大量的铁，所以奶中的铁含量很低，当幼年动物使用了储存的铁，持续生长需要比奶更多的铁。然而，对于成年人来说，牛奶和奶酪中的低铁含量使这些食物有助于防止铁超载，而铁超载往往会导致退行性疾病。
把牛奶、奶酪和水果混合在一起可以增加抗应激的效果。额外的糖、钾和其他矿物质通过调节皮质醇的分泌，帮助抑制甲状旁腺激素的分泌，使牛奶蛋白得到更有效的利用。
甲状旁腺激素、一氧化氮、血清素、皮质醇、醛固酮、雌激素、促甲状腺激素和催乳素等物质具有重要的调节和适应功能，但理想情况下只能间歇性地发挥作用，产生暂时需要的变化。当环境压力过大，或营养不足时，机体可能无法调动对立和互补物质来停止这些活动。在这种情况下，使用一些营养物质作为补剂是有治疗效果的。碳酸钙(例如蛋壳或牡蛎壳)和维生素D、K，有时可以产生快速的抗应激作用，缓解失眠、高血压、水肿、炎症和过敏等，但经常使用牛奶和奶酪可以预防许多与压力有关的慢性疾病。
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