Review Note: Biochemistry; Toxicology
J Aetherom Res 2, 3: 1-5 (2008)
A note on the biology of copper
Paulo N. Correa 1, Alexandra N. Correa 1
1Aurora Biophysics Research Institute, Concord, Ontario Canada
Copper is often cited as an essential mineral. Copper-containing preparations are frequently
employed in multi-mineral and multi-vitamin supplements. However, in what follows, we contend
that the so-called ‘biological need for copper’ is a gratuitous and unfounded commonplace medical
belief that is responsible (1) for the current lack of interest in researching the real biological effects of
copper - which, in fact, are detrimental to health - and, likely, (2) for the slow and unwitting
poisoning of people that consume such ill-advised supplements, placing them at risk for insidious
neurological and sclerotizing diseases like Alzheimer’s disease or atherosclerosis. Indeed, no studies
exist of the real effect of intake of copper via these supplements, and it is likely that copper is not the
only heavy ion to which a caution of this nature applies.
There is a class of anemias that is often cited as evidence for the biological need for copper;
they are referred to as copper-deficiency anemias precisely to indicate this assumed fact. However, the
presumed etiology of these anemias stands upon an “inductive deduction”; and it happens to be the
wrong one. For, in fact, what is assumed to be a lack of copper needed for nutrition has never been
proven; it is inferred as such, when the evidence only permits one to state that lack of the proper cop-
per-binding proteins needed to keep blood free of copper, leads to such anemias. They are, for the most
part, and in effect, anemias caused by the resulting lack of defense - or protection of blood marrow -
against poisoning by copper. Thus, the false notion that there is a nutritional requirement for copper
is proof of the bogus nature of the national dietary requirements of the USDA. There is no such nutri-
tional requirement. As an example of insidious pseudoscience, this imaginary requirement is inferred
from in vitro studies of the electron transport chain in oxidative phosphorylation. There - in the test
tube and not in a cellular system - completion of the respiratory chain and the remainder of the
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© Akronos Publishing, Canada, 2008
ISSN 1915-8408
required potential needs the addition of free copper, so that cytochrome a3 may bind oxygen nonco-
valently, and reduce it to water. The assumption has thus been made that the same applies in vivo, to
the mitochondrion, where the electron shuttle is located. Nothing could be further from the truth, as
our own work has suggested [1]: that end-point potential is precisely provided by ambipolar radiation,
and it is the oxygen-cytochrome complex that functions as a resonant antenna capable of capturing
ambipolar radiation of solar origin, in the 45.5 keV range. In the cell, we contended [1], the initiator
and energy injector of the respiratory chain would be oxygen itself, once it is activated by ambipolar
radiation - with no biological need for copper.
If we remove this apparent ratio essendi of the (imaginary) need for copper, then it is plain to
see that copper is - like arsenic - simply a poison [2]. Indeed, this much is well-established - that
copper is a heavy metal whose unbound ions are toxic, whether they are absorbed gastro-intestinally,
through the skin or breathed in. Likely, substantial exposure to copper since the Mesolithic period has
promoted biological, enzyme-mediated responses geared to bind copper and direct it to excretion via
the bile. The rationale of this biological response is obvious - by binding to copper, its biological tox-
icity can be decreased. If copper - like aluminum - has no role in normal cellular metabolism, then
these adaptive responses are strictly defenses against the toxicity of copper.
Little wonder, then, that the centennial edition of the Merck Manual could only conclude
with a verbose euphemism: “In genetically-normal people, acquired, environmental or dietary abnor-
malities rarely cause clinically significant copper-deficiency” [3]. It is so rare that it has never been
documented, demonstrated or encountered - other than in the imagination of unquestioning physi-
cians or crackpot nutritionists. The imaginary etiology of so-called ‘kwashiorkor disease’ is not
acquired copper deficiency - as its original reports suggested - but excess intake of zinc salts. Treatment
with copper ions is merely a poor man's exchange of copper for the excess zinc. So-called inherited
copper deficiency is another bogus construct of uncritical medicine. Patients with this diagnosis
(Menke’s syndrome) essentially suffer from deficient copper-binding proteins - such as ceruloplasmin
and lysyl oxidase. Cytochrome c oxidase deficiency is also classified as a cause of copper-deficiency,
but it is plain to see that if copper is not involved in the respiratory chain, the genetic deficiency in
cytochrome c oxidase is simply a deficiency in an enzyme that is critical to complete the respiratory
chain - critical, in fact, for the proper cyclic redox alteration of cytochrome a3, and thus the comple-
tion of the electron chain’s last three steps (and not just the last step which is the step that supposed-
ly would require copper). Wilson’s disease (Inherited Copper Toxicosis) is also just a genetic deficien-
cy of cerulloplasmin that, if diagnosed in time, precisely requires lifelong treatment with zinc salts to
leach out any internal copper.
In the absence of copper-binding proteins that leach copper from blood and direct it towards
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excretion, copper toxicity is all the more acute and intense. No treatment exists for Menke’s
syndrome, and the same Merck Manual acknowledges that it is unlikely that copper histidinate has
any therapeutic value. But even in the presence of copper-binding proteins, copper toxicosis can and
does result, reaching lethal doses when fractional gram quantities are ingested. Early stages of copper
toxicosis present nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. These are brought about by milligram ingestion of
copper, either in food or drink, or by inhalation or contact. Copper contamination of food is
commonly the result of employing copper cookware, in particular to heat and cook with milk, milk
products and fats. Likewise, copper plumbing leads to the contamination of tap water used for drink-
ing or cooking. Copper contamination of wines and spirits is also frequently encountered (a common
source are copper distillers). Inhalation of copper is commonly the result of copper aerosols present
in paints, or produced during welding and soddering. Cigarette paper and mark labels are often con-
taminated with copper. Contact with copper piping, copper sheets, etc, leads to absorption by the
skin - repeated contact leading to toxicosis. Copper toxicity progresses from gastrointestinal symp-
toms to more serious symptoms, such as hemolytic anemia and anuria. Thus, it is not the deficiency
of copper that causes anemia; rather, deficiency of copper-binding proteins results in intoxication
with copper - which happens faster than it would in the presence of such proteins. It is one and the
same copper intoxication that leads to hemolytic anemia.
Moreover, in the past 2 decades, there has been a slow awakening to the toxic effects of
copper in the brain and the CNS. In half the cases diagnosed with Wilson’s disease, the toxicosis
affects the CNS, causing motor impairment, tremors, incompetence and discoordination. Psychotic
states indistinguishable from severe manic-depression are often early signs of the advanced degenera-
tion. In the late 1980’s, histopathology studies had suggested a link between Alzheimer’s disease (AD)
and copper [4] and aluminum [5] toxicities. Current views have largely discarded these results in what
concerns aluminum ingestion [6], concentrating instead on the existence of genetic factors that pre-
sent an increasing risk of AD [7]. But, precisely, while these studies eliminated aluminum from cau-
sation of AD, they failed to do so for copper.
Recent research has now confirmed the etiological role of copper in causing AD, by experi-
mentally inducing beta-amyloid accumulations in the CNS neurons of rabbits fed with cholesterol
and trace amounts of copper in tap water. The affected rabbits also presented senile plaque-like struc-
tures in the hippocampus and the temporal lobe, identical in all respects to those found in AD [8]. By
2005, the main mechanism of plaque production characteristic of AD had been identified: Cu2+
forms a redox-active complex with the amyloid beta-peptide, and this catalyzes the in situ formation
of H202 from oxygen and cholesterol, and mimics the action of cholesterol oxidase [9]. Undoubtedly,
copper will play a similar or parallel role in other degenerative diseases related to high cholesterol,
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such as hypertension and vascular diseases. In neuronal cultures, the toxicity is inhibited by copper
chelators, and the pathogenic mechanism is likely common to AD and atherosclerosis [9]. Cholesterol-
ozone derivatives are even more reactive to the presence of copper, resulting in accelerated amyloido-
genesis in AD. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) sensitivity to copper has also been implicated in
Huntington’s disease (HD), where increased brain copper correlates with decreased levels of the amy-
loid precursor protein [10].
From the preceding, one can conclude that the evidence for copper being a poison is now
established beyond doubt, whereas the evidence for the nutritional requirement of copper remains
devoid of any actual foundation. Obviously, consumers of health products should be made aware of
the tremendous risks they are incurring when consuming preparations that contain copper. This is
one more instance where medicine and medical research has lagged behind for no good reason, other
than the social strength of irrational belief. Once again, this proves to be the greatest enemy of sci-
ence and public health.
Post Scriptum: Aside from the wanton and unwarranted decades-old practices of wilfully poisoning
wines with metabisulfites(to “give body” and “taste”), there are even more insideous practices of con-
tamination with heavy metals, in particular, copper and lead. Thus the relevance of the following
article, linked below, to the present review note -
http://www.aetherometry.com/External/newsmax_on_wine.html
REFERENCES
1. Correa, P & Correa, A (2005) “Nanofunctions of bioenergy”, Akronos Publishing,
Concord, Canada, p. 257 and following.
2. Wilhelm Reich thought this much when he stated that employment of copper or alu-
minum in the construction of Faraday cages or ORAC cabinets was dangerous for one’s health.
3. “Merck Manual”, 17th (centennial) edition, M. Beers and R. Berkow Ed.s, Merck
Research Laboratories, NJ, p. 95.
4. The authors directly know of one such study that did not succeed in being published by
mainstream journals.
5. Martyn, CN et al (1989) “Geographical relation between Alzheimer’s disease and alu-
minum in drinking water”, Lancet, 1:59.
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November 2008
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ISSN 1915-8408
6. Bjertness, E et al (1996) “Content of brain aluminum is not elevated in Alzheimer’s dis-
ease”, Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord, 10:171; Martyn, CN et al (1997) “Aluminum concentrations
in drinking water and risk of Alzheimer’s disease”, Epidem, 8:281.
7. Munoz, D & Feldman, H (2006) “Causes of Alzheimer’s disease”, CMAJ, 162:65.
8. Sparks, D and Schreurs, B (2003) “Trace amounts of copper in water induce beta-amy-
loid plaques and learning deficits in a rabbit model of Alzheimer’s disease”, PNAS (USA),
100:11065.
9. Puglielli, L et al (2005) “Alzheimer disease beta-amyloid activity mimics cholesterol oxi-
dase”, J Clin Invest, 115:2556.
10. Fox, JH et al (2007) “Mechanisms of copper ion mediated Huntington’s disease pro-
gression”, PLoS One, 2:e334.